Dr. D. B. Gavani
Methods
of Teaching English Language
1. The Grammar Translation Method
At the height of
the Communicative Approach to language learning in the 1980s and early 1990s it
became fashionable in some quarters to deride so-called
"old-fashioned" methods and, in particular, something broadly
labelled "Grammar Translation". There were numerous reasons for this
but principally it was felt that translation itself was an academic exercise
rather than one which would actually help learners to use language, and an
overt focus on grammar was to learn about the target language rather than to
learn it.
As with many other
methods and approaches, Grammar Translation tended to be referred to in the
past tense as if it no longer existed and had died out to be replaced world-wide
by the fun and motivation of the communicative classroom. If we examine the
principal features of Grammar Translation, however, we will see that not only
has it not disappeared but that many of its characteristics have been central
to language teaching throughout the ages and are still valid today.
The Grammar
Translation method embraces a wide range of approaches but, broadly speaking,
foreign language study is seen as a mental discipline, the goal of which may be
to read literature in its original form or simply to be a form of intellectual
development. The basic approach is to analyze and study the grammatical rules
of the language, usually in an order roughly matching the traditional order of
the grammar of Kannada, and then to practise manipulating grammatical
structures through the means of translation both into and from the mother
tongue.
The method is very
much based on the written word and texts are widely in evidence. A typical
approach would be to present the rules of a particular item of grammar,
illustrate its use by including the item several times in a text, and practise
using the item through writing sentences and translating it into the mother
tongue. The text is often accompanied by a vocabulary list consisting of new
lexical items used in the text together with the mother tongue translation.
Accurate use of language items is central to this approach.
Generally speaking,
the medium of instruction is the mother tongue, which is used to explain
conceptual problems and to discuss the use of a particular grammatical
structure. It all sounds rather dull but it can be argued that the Grammar
Translation method has over the years had a remarkable success. Millions of
people have successfully learnt foreign languages to a high degree of
proficiency and, in numerous cases, without any contact whatsoever with native
speakers of the language as was the case in India.
There are certain
types of learner who respond very positively to a grammatical syllabus as it
can give them both a set of clear objectives and a clear sense of achievement.
Other learners need the security of the mother tongue and the opportunity to
relate grammatical structures to mother tongue equivalents. Above all, this
type of approach can give learners a basic foundation upon which they can then
build their communicative skills.
Applied wholesale
of course, it can also be boring for many learners and a quick look at foreign
language course books from the 1950s and 1960s, for example, will soon reveal
the non-communicative nature of the language used. Using the more enlightened
principles of the Communicative Approach, however, and combining these with the
systematic approach of Grammar Translation, may well be the perfect combination
for many learners. On the one hand they have motivating communicative
activities that help to promote their fluency and, on the other, they gradually
acquire a sound and accurate basis in the grammar of the language. This
combined approach is reflected in many of the EFL course books currently being
published and, amongst other things, suggests that the Grammar Translation
method, far from being dead, is very much alive and kicking as we enter the
21st century.
Without a sound
knowledge of the grammatical basis of the language it can be argued that the
learner is in possession of nothing more than a selection of communicative
phrases which are perfectly adequate for basic communication but which will be
found wanting when the learner is required to perform any kind of sophisticated
linguistic task.
2.
The Structural –
oral – situational Method
Palmer, Hornby, and
other British applied linguist from the 1920s onward developed an approach to
methodology that involved systematic principles of selection (the procedures by
which lexical and grammatical content was chosen), gradation (principles by
which the organization and sequencing of content were determined),
andpresentation (techniques used for presentation and practice of items in a
course).
The main
characteristics of the approach were as follow:
Language teaching
begins with the spoken language. Material is taught orally before it is
presented in written form. The target language is the language of the
classroom. New language points are introduced and practiced situationally. Vocabulary
selection procedures are followed to ensure that an essential general service
vocabulary is covered. Items of grammar are graded following the principle that
simple forms should be taught before complex ones. Reading and writing are
introduced once a sufficient lexical and grammatical basis is established.
Theory of Language
and Learning
The theory of language underlying
Situational Language Teaching can be characterized as a type of British
“structuralism.” Speech was regarded as the basis of language, and structure
was viewed as being at the heart of speaking ability. The theory of learning underlying
Situational Language Teaching is a type of behaviorist habit-learning theory.
It addresses primarily the processes rather than the conditions of learning.
Frisby, for example, cites Palmer’s views as authoritative:
As Palmer has
pointed out there are three processes in learning a language-receiving the
knowledge or materials, fixing it in the memory by repetition, and using it in
actual practice until it becomes a personal skill.
Like the Direct Method, Situational
Language Teaching adopts an inductive approach to the teaching of grammar. The
meaning of words and structures is not to be given through explanation in
either the native language or the target language.
Design and Objectives:
The objectives of Situational
Language Teaching method are to teach a practical command of the four basic
skills of language. Errors are to be
avoided at all costs.
The syllabus:
In Situational Language Teaching,
structures are always taught within sentences, and vocabulary is chosen
according to how well it enables sentence patterns to be taught. Rather, situation refers to manner of
presenting and practicing sentence patterns.
Types of learning
and teaching activities:
By situation Pittman means the use
of concrete objects, pictures, and regalia, which together with actions ad
gestures ca be used to demonstrate the meaning of language items.
The practice techniques employed
generally consist of guided repetition and substitution activities, including
chorus repetition, dictation, drills, and controlled oral-based reading and
writing tasks. Other oral-practice techniques are sometimes used including pair
practice and group work.
Learner roles: Listen and repeat / more active
participation
Teacher roles: Serves as a model, Conductor of an orchestra,
The role of instructional materials
Situational Language Teaching is dependent
on both a textbook and visual aids. Visual aids consist of wall charts,
flashcards, pictures, stick figures, and so on.
The essential features of SLT are
seen in the “P-P-P” lesson model that thousands of teachers who studied for the
RSA/ Cambridge Certificate in TEFL were required to master in the 1980s and
early 1990s, with a lesson having three phrases: Presentation (introduction of
a new teaching item in context), Practice (controlled practice of the item),
Production (a freer practice phrase)
3.
The Modern Methods:
a.
The Direct Method
Gouin had been one
of the first of the nineteenth-century reformers to attempt to build a
methodology around observation of child language learning. L. Sauveur, who used intensive oral
interaction in the target language, was employing questions as a way of
presenting and eliciting language.
Natural language learning
principles provided the foundation for what came to be known as the Direct
Method. Enthusiastic supporters of the Direct Method introduced it in France
and Germany, and it became widely known in the United States through its use by
Sauveur and Maximilian Berlitz in successful commercial language schools. In
practice it stood for the following principles and procedures:
Classroom instruction
was conducted exclusively in the target language.
Only everyday
vocabulary and sentences were taught.
Grammar was taught
inductively.
New teaching points
were introduced orally.
Concrete vocabulary
was taught through demonstration, objects, and pictures; abstract vocabulary
was taught by association of ideas.
Both speech and
listening comprehension were taught.
Correct
pronunciation and grammar were emphasized.
These principles
are seen in the following guidelines for teaching oral language, which are
still followed in contemporary Berlitz schools:
Never translate:
demonstrate
Never explain: act
Never make a
speech: ask question
Never imitate
mistakes: correct
Never speak with
single words: use sentences
Never speak too
much: make students speak much
Never use the book:
use your lesson plan
Never jump around:
follow your plan
Never go too fast:
keep the pace of students
Never speak too
slowly: speak naturally
Never speak too
loudly: speak naturally
Never be impatient:
take it easy
Dictation
The teacher reads the passage three
times. The first time the teacher reads it at a normal speed, while the
students just listen. The second time he reads the passage phrase by phrase,
pausing long enough to allow students to write down what they have heard. The
last time the teacher again reads at a normal speed, and students check their
work.
Getting students to
self-correct
The teacher of the class has the
students self-correct by asking them to make choice between what they said and
an alternative answer he supplied. There are, however, other ways of getting
students to self-correct. For example, a teacher might simply repeat what a
student has just said; using a questioning voice to signal to the student that
something was wrong with it. Another possibility is for the teacher to repeat
what the student said, stopping just before the error. The student knows that
the next word was wrong.
b. THE AUDIO-LINGUAL METHOD
The Audio-Lingual Method, like the Direct
Method, is also an oral-based approach. However, it is very different in that
rather than emphasizing vocabulary acquisition through exposure to its use in
situations, the Audio-Lingual Method drills students in the use of grammatical
sentence patterns. It also, unlike the Direct Method, has a strong theoretical
base in linguistics and psychology. Its principles:
Language forms do not
occur by themselves; they occur most naturally within a context. The native
language and the target language have separate linguistic system. Teacher
should provide students with a good model. Language learning is a process of
habit formation. The more often something is repeated, the stronger the habit
and the greater the learning. It is important to prevent learners from making
errors. Errors lead to the formation of bad habits. When errors do occur, they
should be immediately corrected by the teacher. The purpose of language
learning is to learn how to use the language to communicate. Positive
reinforcement helps the students to develop corrects habits. Students should
learn to respond to both verbal and nonverbal stimuli. Each language has a
finite number of patterns. Pattern practice helps students to form habits which
enable the students to use the patterns.
Students should overlearn
(learn to answer automatically without stopping to think). The teacher should
be like an orchestra leader. The major objective of language teaching should be
for students to acquire the structural patterns.
The major challenge of
foreign language teaching is getting students to overcome the habits of their
native language. Speech is more basic to language than the written form.
Goals of teachers: Teachers want their students to be able to use
the target language communicatively.
Role of teacher and
students: The teacher is like an orchestra leader,
directing and controlling the language behavior of her students. She is also
responsible for providing her students with a good model for imitation.
Students are imitators of the teacher’s model or the tapes she supplies of
model speakers. They follow the teacher’s directions and respond as accurately
and as rapidly as possible.
Some characteristics of
the teaching/learning process: New vocabulary and structural patterns are
presented through dialogues. The dialogues are learned through imitation and
repetition. Drills are conducted based upon the patterns present in the dialogue.
Nature of student-teacher
interaction and student-student interaction:
There is student to student
interaction in chain drills or when students take different roles in dialogs,
but this interaction is teacher-directed. What areas of language are
emphasized? Vocabulary is kept to a
minimum while the students are mastering the sound system and grammatical
patterns. A grammatical pattern is not the same as sentence. The natural order
of skills presentation is adhered to: listening, speaking, reading, and
writing. The oral skills receive most of the attention. What is the role of
students’ native language? The target
language is used in classroom, not the students’ native language. How does the
teacher respond to student errors?
Student errors are to be avoided.
Techniques: Dialogue
memorization, Backward build-up drill, Repetition
drill, Chain drill, Single-slot substitution drill, Multiple-slot substitution
drill, Transformation drill, Question-and-answer drill, Minimal pairs, Grammar
game
. The goal of foreign
language study is to learn a language in order to read
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